BERMUDA.

roots in rows or broadcast. It spreads rapidly and is difficult to exterminate.

BERMUDAS, ber-mü'daz, or SOMMERS'S ISLES, sum'erz. named respectively from Bermudez, a Spaniard, who first sighted them, 1527, and from Sir George Sommers, an Englishman, whose shipwreck here in 1609 was the immediate occasion of their being colonized from Virginiaitself only four years old-in 1611. This low and lonely archipelago is a mere group of specks, for, though it numbers perhaps 500 islets, yet it measures only about 12,000 acres in all; the whole occupying a space of about 20 m. in length by little more than six in breadth. The value of this natural fortress, which can hardly be overrated, arises from its situation. In lat. 32° 20' n., and long. 64° 50′ w. the B. occupy, commercially and politically, a singularly commanding position. At a distance of 600 m. from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, they are about equally remote from the n. of Maine and from the s. of Florida; again, between the two grand divisions of British America, they form an almost indispensable bond of union; and lastly, they flank, on either side, the two marine highways which respectively lead from the N. Atlantic to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Gulf of Mexico to the N. Atlantic. The four principal islands are-St. George's, 34 m. in length; Bermuda, 15; Somerset, 3; and Ireland, 3-the breadth ranging between 2 m. and 1 furlong. The minor islands of St. David, Cooper, Smith, Long-Bird, Nonsuch, etc., form numerous picturesque creeks and bays of great size and depth, such as the Great Sound, Castle Harbor, Harrington Sound, and others. Most of the other members of the group are individually insignificant, many of them indeed without name or inhabitant. St. George's Isle, the military station of the colony, commands the entrance of the only passage for large vessels-the narrow and intricate channel which leads to its landlocked haven being defended by strong batteries. From the strange shapes of most of the islands, and the number of spacious lagoons, the communications are almost as necessarily by water as those of Venice; while the cedar-boats glide under the bluest sky, through an element so clear as to reveal, even to its lowest depths, the many varieties of fish sporting among the coral rocks, and the exquisitely variegated shells. This archipelago is the most northerly point on the globe where the living zoophyte still piles up its submarine architecture. The climate may be said to complete the paradise, resembling that of Persia, with the peculiar addition of a constant sea-breeze. Between Dec. and March, the thermometer ranges from 60° to 66°; in June, from 83° to 86°; and between Apr. and Sep. from 75° to 79°. As the dew-point ranges high, the air is moist at all seasons. With respect to productions, the entire soil presents under tillage of every description only 1,227 acres; in grass for cattle-fodder, 33; and in wood or pasture, 10,339. Of the cultivated grounds, the main crops are potatoes, onions, and other garden-vegetables, arrow-root, maize, etc. Besides being useful as a station for those

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British vessels of war which are charged with the care of the West Indies on the one side, and the n. provinces on the other, Bermuda was formerly an important depot for convicts, but since 1862 it has ceased to be so. Between Bermuda and Halifax, Nova Scotia, there is a regular steamer carrying the mails. The total imports in 1892 had a value of $1,580,558; exports, $554,184. The imports from the United States in 1892 were $973,757; exports thither only $552,178. The revenue in 1885 was $143,450; the public debt $26,240. The fisheries are of value. Although vegetation is so luxuriant, yet grain, flour, rice and live-stock are imported from the United States. In the B., emancipation has been decidedly beneficial, though here, as in Antigua, it was carried at once into full effect without the intermediate stage of apprenticeship. The group is under the authority of a governor, a council of 9 members, and an assembly of 36. There are 12 free and 9 private schools. More than two-thirds of the population belong to the Church of England, which has four clergymen. Presbyterians, Wesleyans, and Rom. Catholics have each one or more. Pop. (1871) 12,121; (1881) 14,314, there being about seven colored persons to every five whites; (1893) 15,519.

BERN, or BERNE, bern: the most populous, and next to the Grisons the most extensive, canton of Switzerland; nearly 2,650 sq. m.; between lat. 46° 20′ and 47° 30′ n., and long. 6° 50′ and 8° 27′ e. It has France on the n.; on the other three sides it is surrounded by its sister cantons. B. is one of the three governing cantons of the Swiss Confederation (since 1849 it has been the permanent seat of the Swiss government), and had, 1894, a population of 541,051 -about one-fifth of the total inhabitants of Switzerland. Of these 67,000 were Rom. Cath., the rest Protestant. The fertile valleys of the Aar and the Emmen divide the mountainous Alpine region in the s. from the Jura Mountains in the n. The valleys of Simmenthal, Lauterbrunnen, Grindelwald, and Hasli, in the s., called the Bernese Oberland, are celebrated for beauty. The lakes of Thun, Brienz, Neuchatel, and Bienne are in B., which is watered by the Aar and its several tributaries. The climate, from the great difference in the elevations of the territory, is very variable and subject to sudden changes and frequent rains and fogs, but it is generally healthful. The districts of the Aar and the Emmen are the most fruitful, producing corn and fruits of various kinds and affording excellent pasturage for cattle, which, with dairy produce, are the chief agricultural wealth of Bern. Corn and potatoes are not raised in sufficient quantities for home consumption. The vine grows in some districts, and hemp and flax in small quantities are raised. The horses of the Emmenthal are much prized. The lakes abound with salmon and trout. Iron, lead, and copper are found in the canton, which has also quarries of gypsum, marble, freestone, and granite. granite. Its manufactures, which are not extensive, are chiefly of linen, coarse woolens, leather, iron and copper wares, articles of wood, and watches. The canton is traversed by good roads, and its

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iakes and the river Aar are well supplied with steampackets The educational condition of the canton is good. B. entered the Swiss Confederation, in which it now holds the second rank, in 1352. In the 15th and 16th c. it added to its possession Aargau and Vaud, which it lost during the wars of the first Napoleon; but it received in return Bienne and its territory, and the greatest part of the bishopric of Basel. The present constitution of the canton, dating from 1846, is one of representative democracy.

BERN: cap. of the above canton; lat. 46° 57′ n., long. 7° 26' e.; on a lofty sandstone promontory, more than 1,700 ft. above the sea, formed by the winding Aar, which surrounds it on three sides, and is crossed by three bridges, one built 1841-44, the second 1883, the third a railway bridge. The fourth side was defended by fortifications, but these have been converted into public walks, from which a magnificent prospect is enjoyed. B. has an imposing appearance from a distance, and a nearer view discloses one of the best and most regularly built towns in Europe, as it is the finest in Switzerland. The houses are massive structures of freestone, resting upon arcades, lined with shops, and furnishing covered walks on both sides of the street. Rills of water flow through the streets, which are also adorned with numerous fountains. There are many fine public promenades in the environs, and the view of the Alpine peaks from the city is magnificent. The principal public buildings are a Gothic cathedral, founded 1421, with some interesting tablets and relics; a new and magnificent structure, designed to accommodate the Swiss diet and administration; the mint, the hospital, and the university. B. has an interesting museum, and a valuable town library of 75,000 vols. The manufacturing industry is not great-gunpowder, firearms, leather, straw hats, and paper, are the chief articles. It has a considerable trade in the produce of the surrounding district. B. was founded by Berthold V., 1191, who is said to have given it the name B. be cause he had killed a bear on the spot. A charter from Frederick II., 1218, made it a free imperial city, and it gradually extended its possessions until it became an independent state; and, between 1288 and 1339, successfully resisted the attacks of Rudolph of Hapsburg, Albert his son, and Louis of Bavaria. In B. was held, 1528, the Conference (or Disputation) of Bern, establishing the Reformation in B. It is sometimes considered the turning-point in favor of the Reformation: see D'Aubigne's History of the Reformation. When the French entered B., 1798, they found 30,000,000 francs in the treasury. The corporate property of B. is very large-sufficient to defray all municipal expenses, provide the whole of the citizens with fuel gratis, and besides, to leave a surplus for annual distribution among them. B. is the residence of foreign ministers; and, since 1849 the permanent seat of the Swiss government and diet. Haller, the distinguished physiologist, was born at Bern. On account of the traditionary derivation of its name (Old Swabian bern, a bear), bears have for several centuries been maintained in B. at the expense of the community. The

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French, when they captured B., 1798, took possession of the bears, and sent them to the Jardin des Plantes, Paris; but the Bernese have since secured other specimens of their favorite animals, which are one of the 'sights' of the city. Pop. (1880) 44,087; (1888) 46,009; (1893) 47,620.

BERNADOTTE, bér-nā-dot: see CHARLES XIV.

BERNALDA, běr-nál'da: town of s. Italy, province of Potenza, 32 m. w. by s. from Saranto. Pop. abt. 7,000. BERNARD, CLAUDE, věr-năr': 1813, July. 12-1878, Feb. 10; b. Saint-Julien, near Villefranche, dept. of the Rhone: physiologist. He studied medicine at Paris; was admitted, 1839, as a pensioner in one of the hospitals; and, 1841, became Magendie's assistant at the College of France. He graduated, 1843, Doctor of Medicine, and ten years later, Doctor in Science; and was appointed in 1854, Feb., to the chair of general physiology in connection with the Faculty of Sciences in Paris. The same year, he was chosen member of the Acad. of Sciences; and, 1855, he succeeded Magendie as prof. of experimental physiology in the College of France. B.'s first researches were devoted to the physiological action of the various secretions of the alimen tary canal. His Memoir, published 1844, in the Gazette Médicale, treats of the mechanism by which the gastric juice is secreted, and also of the modifications which alimen. tary substances undergo from that liquid. To the Comptes Rendus of the Biological Soc. he also contributed papers on the Saliva, on the Intestinal Juice, on the Influence of the Different Pairs of Nerves on the Digestive Apparatus, and on the Respiratory and Circulatory Systems. His first really original paper, however, was that on the Function of the Pancreas, in which he demonstrated that that viscus is the true agent of the digestion of fatty bodies. This essay obtained, 1849, the grand prize in experimental physiology, and was printed in the Comptes Rendus of the Acad. of Sciences, 1856. In 1849, appeared his first researches on the Glycogenic Function of the Liver, establishing the doctrine that the blood which enters the liver does not contain sugar; while blood which leaves that organ, and goes to the heart by the hepatic veins, is charged with it. He also showed the influence of the nervous system on this function, and produced artificial diabetes by division of the pneumogastric. For this discovery, which was keenly criticised, but is now regarded as sound, he obtained, 1851, the grand prize in experimental physiology. In 1852, he laid before the Institute his Experimental Researches on the great Sympathetic System, and on the Influence exerted by Division of this Nerve on the Animal Heat. This paper procured him, for the third time, the prize of experimental physiology, 1853. After 1854, when he succeeded Roux as member of the Institute, he continued his researches on the glycogenic function of the liver, and published his courses of lectures at the College of France, on Experimental Physiology in its Application to Medicine (1855-1856); on The Effects of Toric and Medicated Substances (1857); on The Physiology and Pathology of the Nervous System (1858);

BERNARD.

on The Physiological Properties and the Pathological Alter. ations of the Various Liquids of the Organism (1859); on Nutrition and Development (1860); and his Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine (1865). In 1862 he became officer of the Legion of Honor; in 1867, commander; and in 1869 he was made a member of the Academy.

BERNARD, GREAT SAINT (Mons Jovis): famous mountain-pass in the Pennine Alps, between Piedmont and the Valais. The pass attains an elevation of more than 8,000 ft. above the sea-level; and almost on its very crest, on the edge of a small lake, which is frozen over nine months out of the twelve, stands the hospice, founded, 962, by Bernard de Meuthon, a Savoyard nobleman, for the benefit of pilgrims to Rome, and now largely used by travellers across the Alps. The hospice, next to the Etna Observatory, the highest habitation in Europe, is occupied by ten or twelve St. Augustine monks, who, with their noble dogs of Saint Bernard breed, have rescued many hundred travellers from death by exposure to cold, or burial in the snow, which in winter ranges from 10 to 40 ft. in depth. The humanity of the monks shortens their own lives very considerably, the rigorous cold-which has been known to be 29°, and is frequently as low as 18° and 20°, below zero F. -and the difficulty of respiration, often compelling them to leave with ruined health before they have completed the period of their vow-15 years. They enter on their humane mission at the age of 18. The hospice is a substantial stone building, capable of affording sleeping-accommodation to 70 or 80 travellers, and shelter to about 300. As many as 500 or 600 persons have taken advantage of the hospitality of the monks in one day, and it is calculated that 8,000 or 9,000 travellers are annually indebted to their kindness. The resources of the monks are mainly derived from voluntary subscriptions and gifts, but they draw a little from independent property. Formerly, they had much more from the latter source, but a forced contribution of $24,000 to the government of the canton of Valais impaired their revenues very much. The pass, traversed in early times by the Romans, Charlemagne, and Frederick Barbarossa, is celebrated for the passage of 30,000 French troops under Napoleon, 1800, May.

LITTLE SAINT BERNARD, which forms part of the chain of the Graian Alps, is the most convenient of the Alpine passes, and is supposed to have been the one by which Hannibal led his forces into Italy. It also possesses a hospice, 7,192 ft. above the sea.

BERNARD OF CLUNY, ber'nard öv klü-në: abt. 11221156: monk under Peter the Venerable, Abbot of Cluny or Clugny. He wrote an extended Latin poem, Contempt of the World, ranked among the best productions of mediæval church literature. A few of our modern hymns, such as Brief Life is Here our Portion, Jerusalem the Golden, etc., are mere extracts translated from B's poems.

BERNARD, SAINT, of Clairvaux: 1091-1153, Aug. 20; b. Fontaine, near Dijon, Burgundy: one of the most eminent