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BOND-BONDI.

governmental organization, and an individual promissory note. The governmental bonds are commercial securities, and are similar to currency. Payment made in negotiable bonds for property bought by a city is the same as if currency had been used in the transaction, if the terms and cir cumstances of the contract imply that intention; and such manner of payment implies that the vender intended no reservation of lien or privilege to secure the bonds at maturity. The U. S. government issued between 1861 and 1876 (15 years) bonds and treasury notes to the amount of $5,011-, 818,908. The coupon and registered bonds issued in 1862, '64, and '65, redeemable after 5 and payable after 20 years, are known as five-twenties of 1862, '64 and '65, respectively. Other issues are known as ten-forties of 1864; sixes (bearing 6 per cent interest) of 1881; seven-thirties (bearing 7.3 per cent interest), etc. See UNITED STATES MONEY.

BOND, WILLIAM CRANCH: 1789-1859; b. Portland, Me.: astronomer. He was & watchmaker, when an eclipse, in 1806, led him to a study of astronomy. He continued at his trade; but gave much of his time to study, and secured a private observatory at Dorchester (now a part of Boston), where his discoveries attracted attention. He was one of the first American observers to note the comet of 1811. In 1815 he was sent to Europe, with a commission in reference to a proposed observatory for Harvard University. In 1838, he was appointed by the U. S. govt. to accompany Wilkes's exploring expedition to the South Sea, and make astronomi. cal and meteorological observations. The next year ho superintended the building of the Harvard observatory, and became its director (1840). He was one of the first to apply photography to celestial phenomena.-His son, GEORGE PHILLIPS B. (1825-1865, Feb.; b. Dorchester) graduated at Harvard 1845, and succeeded his father as prof. of astronomy and director of the observatory 1859. His treatise on the Rings of Saturn and other works gave him wide repute.

BONDAGER, bond'aj-ér: in Scotland, a rural laborer,man or woman, who rents a cottage from a farmer under an obligation to work for him at current wages at certain seasons.

BOND CREDITOR: term sometimes applied to a creditor whose debt is secured by a bond, and therefore priv. ileged as a specialty: see BOND, in Law.

BONDED WAREHOUSE: see WAREHOUSING SYSTEM. BONDER, n. bond'er (generally plural, BONDERS), or BOND-STONE: in masonry, stones which reach a considerable distance into, or entirely through, a wall, for the purpose of binding it together.

BÖNDER: in Norway and Sweden, a class of landowners or farmers corresponding in some respects to the barons and burgesses in England. Under the ancient rulers they were very powerful, and often forced important concessions from their kings.

BONDI, bon'de, CLEMENTE: 1742-1821; b. Mizzano, Parma: Italian poet. He was educated by the Jesuits; and when still very young, appointed to deliver lectures in rhetoric, in

BONDOU-BONDY.

the Royal Convent at Parma. Here he produced his first work, Giornata Villereccia (Parma, 1773). After fleeing from a priestly persecution, he found a patron in the Austrian Archduke Ferdinand, and fixed his residence in Vienna, where he died. His poems are lyrical, descriptive, satirical, and elegiac. They please persons of culture and delicate sensibilities by the light-flowing elegance of their versification, and the rare purity of their style. Among his larger works are La Conversazione, La Felicità, and Il Governo Pacifico. Italians consider B.'s translation of the Eneid to possess remarkable excellence. His entire works were published at Vienna, 1808.

BONDOU, or BONDU, bon do': country of Senegambia, w. Africa, between lat. 14°-15° n., and long. 11° -13° w. The soil is fertile, producing cotton, indigo, millet, maize, tobacco, etc. The weaving of cotton cloth, which, besides being made up into articles of dress, is used as currency, forms part of the industry of the people. The surface of B. is level, with elevations in the north and central parts; the climate generally healthful, and vegetation luxuriant alike in field and forest. Iron is said to be plentiful, though not much worked, and the gold is obtained in small quantity. Wild animals are numerous; and the principal river on the e. border of the country, the Falemé, abounds with crocodiles. The inhabitants of B. profess Mohammedanism, but they trust greatly in sorcerers. The sovereign is absolute. B. exports cattle, corn, and gums; and has a transit trade in slaves, gold-dust, iron, salt, and butter. Pop. estimated 30,000.

The capital, Bulibani, is in a plain bounded by rocky hills and forests, on the left bank of the Falemé. Its streets are unpaved and dirty, and its buildings mean and miserable; mud-walls surround it, and in its centre is the extensive but rude palace of the sovereign. Pop. about 2,200, composed in great part of slaves, from the sale of which the ruler derives considerable revenue.

BONDY, bōng de': town of France, dept. of the Seine, 7 m. e.n.e. of Paris, on the Ourcq canal. It has many country residences, but is noted particularly for its great forest, which covers about 5,000 acres, and was, so it is claimed, the scene of the assassination of Childeric II., King of Austrasia, by Bodillon, 673; and also of the murder of Aubry de Montdidier. These crimes, and several others, had given B. a sad celebrity, which it has happily lost; and it is now for the Parisians one of the most charming retreats. During the siege of Paris, 1870-71, B. was the scene of several terrible conflicts between the French and the Germans. Pop. (1891) 3,004.

BONE.

BONE, n. bōn [AS. ban; Ger. bein; Icel. bein, the bone of the leg: Dut. been; W. bon, a stem or base, the legs being the stems or supports of the body]: one of the stems or supports of the body; the firm hard substance that composes the framework or skeleton of vertebrate animals; any part of the skeleton: ADJ. made of bone: V. to take out bones; to stiffen with whalebone. BONES, n. plu. bōnz, bobbins of bone for lace-making. BON ING, imp., sometimes spelled BONEING: N. taking bones out of meat. BONED, bond, pp.: ADJ. having large bones; strong. BONE LESS, a. -les, without bones. BONY, a. bō'ni, full of bones; stout; strong; consisting of bone; hard and brittle. BONE-ASH, the impure phosphate of lime obtained by burn. ing bones. BONE-BLACK, charred bones. BONE-BROWN OI IVORY-BROWN, bone and ivory roasted till they become of a brown color throughout. BONE-DUST, ground bones. BONE-EARTH, the earthy or mineral part of bones, consisting chiefly of phosphate of lime. BONE-ACHE, pain in the bones. BONE-BED, thin strata or layers found in several places in the earth's crust, so called from their containing innumerable fragments of fossil bones, scales, teeth, coprolites, etc. BONE-BRECCIA, an admixture of fragments of limestone and bones cemented together into a hard rock by a reddish calcareous concretion. BONE-LACE, flaxen lace. BONE-SPAVIN, a hard swelling on the inside of the hough of a horse's leg. BODY AND BONES, altogether; wholly. BONE-SETTER, one who is skilled in the setting of broken bones; an unqualified surgeon. BONE SETTING, the restoration of a broken bone to its proper place. To MAKE NO BONES OF, to have no scruples about the thing; to swallow it easily. BONE OF CONTENTION, a subject provocative of wranglings and ill-will-alluding to two dogs fighting for a bone. BONE TO PICK, a thing to divert or occupy attention; a cause of friendly fault-finding or censure; an unpleasant matter to settle.

BONE: the hard material of the skeletons or frameworks of mammalian animals, reptiles, and birds. In its earliest stages, it is termed temporary cartilage (q.v.) and consists of cells massed together, except in the flat bones, as those of the skull and shoulder-blade, of which the primary founda tions are to a great extent of fibrous tissue. Points or centres of ossification form, the cells alter their form and arrangement, and a deposit of earthy materials, phosphate and carbonate of lime, takes place, rendering the former flexible substance rigid. By soaking a B. in a dilute mineral acid, we can dissolve these earthy matters, and render it again flexible; on the other hand, if we expose it to intense heat, the animal matter (gelatine) is got rid of, and though the bone retains at first its form, the slightest touch will cause its now unsupported earthy matter to crumble away. In the ill-nourished children of large towns are seen examples of the necessity of a proper relation of these two elements of B. to each other; in the disease called rickets, the earthy matter is deficient, and the too flexible leg-bones bend under the weight of the trunk. In the aged person the B. substance becomes more densely packed with earthy

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matter, and becomes brittle, rendering them peculiarly liable to fractures.

The bones of the skeleton are classified according to their shapes-viz., as long bones, e.g., the thigh-bone and arm; bone; flat bones, as the shoulder blade and skull-bonesshort and irregular bones, as those of the wrist or the vertebræ. The substance of bones is arranged differently in different parts-either hard and close, which is called the condensed substance, or loose and reticulated, called the cancellated structure. Long Bones have a shaft of hard substance terminating at each end in soft or cancellated structure; in the latter situations, the B. is more expanded, and rounded off to enter into the formation of a joint. Irregular Bones consist of a shell of condensed tissue, inclosing a mass of cancellated structure, and are smoothed off into surfaces adapted to those of the adjoining bones. Flat Bones consist of two layers of hard tissue, with an intermediate cancellated structure. Anatomists also talk of mixed bones, those which are both long and flat, as the ribs, the breast-bone, and the lower jaw.

[graphic]

Transverse Section of Bone,
Showing its microscopic structure.

The shaft of a long B. is hollow, and filled with an oily substance, the marrow (q.v.); the space in which the mar row lies is called the medullary canal. This fatty substance is found also in the cancellated structure of short and mixed, and in the diploë of flat bones, and even in the condensed tissue. Bones are covered externally by periosteum (q.v.), and on the surfaces of the cavities within by a fine membrane called internal periosteum or medullary membrane. B. is largely supplied with blood-vessels, which are continued into it from those of the periosteum; the largest are those which enter the cancellated ends of the long bones. The medullary membrane receives a special artery for the supply of the compact tissue next the canal. This vessel enters the bone generally rather above its middle, and divides into two branches, one of which runs up, the other downwards, both dividing into numerous branches, anastomosing with the vessels we have alluded to as entering the cancellated tissue. After the

BONE.

arteries enter the compact tissue of bones, they run in small capillary canals, invisible to the naked eye, which permeate the bone, and anastomose, leaving oblong loops or meshes. The veins of B. also are contained in these canals, but they are larger than the arteries, and have at irregular intervals, where branches meet, dilatations or reservoirs for the blood.

These canals, named Haversian, after their discoverer, Clopton Havers, an old English anatomist, vary in diameter from tog of an inch. They take a longitudinal direction, and if a transverse section is examined under the microscope, it appears pierced with holes, which are the Haversian canals cut across. Each canal is surrounded by its own layers of condensed structure, forming in the aggregate a hollow rod or pin, called the Haversian system, running through the plates of which the B. is composed, and securing their cohesion. In addition to these, there are to be seen a number of minute spaces or lacunæ, generally oval in man; from these pass numerous pores or canaliculi, which are directed to the nearest vessels: those in the periosteal, or outer, lamella pass into the B. from orifices on its surface, and the lacunæ face outward. The pores of the internal layer open on the medullary canal, and its lacunæ face toward it, and the lacunæ in the layers around each Haversian canal face toward, and their pores open into. it.

Nerves may be seen entering B., and the acute pain felt in some of its diseased conditions prove their existence, but they have not yet been actually demonstrated in the osseous tissue; neither have absorbents, though from analogy it is supposed bones are supplied with them.

For the several bones composing the animal frame, see SKELETON: for important peculiarities in the bones of dif. ferent classes of animals, see those classes.

Chemical Composition of Bone.-The principal chemical ingredients present in B. are gelatine and phosphate of lime; and the following table represents the composition in 100 parts of B. of average quality:

[blocks in formation]

When a B. is digested in dilute hydrochloric acid at a summer heat, the earthy matters are gradually dissolved out, leaving the gelatine of the size and shape of the original B., but now soft, somewhat transparent, flexible, and even elastic. If this soft gelatinous residue of B. be boiled with water, it dissolves in great part therein, and yields a solution which sets or gelatinizes on cooling. A more common way of extracting the gelatine from B. is to heat the bones covered with water in a digester to a temperature of 270°-280° F., when much of the gelatine dissolves out, and

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