into Christian channels; Luther broke the chain of authority and tradition at the strongest link; and Copernicus erected an invincible power that set for ever the mark of progress upon the time that was to come." LORD ACTON. A. Consolidation of principalities, dukedoms, etc. into states. B. Changed attitude to Papacy. (1) Political. Why should a foreign potentate interfere with a nation's affairs? (2) Religious. No priest should come between man and his Maker. (3) Moral. Many priests preached what they did not practise. (4) Intellectual. Man's reason should be free C. Revival of Learning. D. Invention of Printing. F. Copernicus. G. Effective use of Gunpowder in War. Conclusion. And so then, as ever, "The old order changeth, yielding place to new." 7. Arthurian Legends in English Literature. Introduction. Map of Britain shows many place names containing some form of Arthur. Who was Arthur? Legends connected with him widespread, and important in the literatures of France, Germany, England. Body. A. Story of Arthur is Celtic-Wales and Brittany. See Geoffrey of Monmouth, Gaimar, Wace, Walter Map. B. The poetic Morte Arthur, Awntyrs of Arthure, etc. C. Malory: Morte d'Arthur. D. Spenser: The Faerie Queene. E. Milton, Dryden, Blackmore. Conclusion. Arthur's epitaph-"Hic iacet Arthurus Rex quondam Rexque futurus." The last part of epitaph is fulfilled in an unexpected way, since Arthur, the hero of the British Celts, who were conquered by the English, has driven English heroes from the field of English literature. 8. Posterity commences at the Frontier. Introduction. "A man's first care should be to avoid the reproaches of his own heart; his next, to escape the censures of the world: if the last interferes with the former, it ought to be entirely neglected. ADDISON. But in regard to literature, some critics bid us take the opinion of other nations in preference to our own opinion. Foreign opinion, they say, is the infallible opinion of after ages. Body. A. The reason given is that foreigners look at a writer with the detachment of posterity, i.e. unswayed by local and temporary feeling. But this is merely stating in another way, not proving the dictum. Besides, foreigners cannot necessarily judge with detachment. For (1) they are foreigners; (2) as human beings, they have bias. B. The stock instance is Continental opinion of Byron's greatness during his time of eclipse in England. Byron's European fame is the best earnest of his immortality, for a foreign nation is a kind of contemporaneous posterity." But Byron's high fame on the Continent rests not so much on poetic qualities as on his liberal opinions. C. Continental appreciation of The Vicar of Wakefield and of the Waverley Novels has been confirmed by posterity; but contemporary Continental laudation of Ossian (e.g. Goethe's) has not been confirmed by posterity. Therefore, the verdict of contemporary foreigners is not infallible. D. Of course, Continental fame (in addition to English) won and retained by an English writer is strong proof of his excellence. Conclusion. Part of W. Watson's sonnet "On exaggerated deference to foreign literary opinion”— "What! and shall we, with such submissive airs With scarce less power than Arno's exiled tongue- 9. If you wish for Peace, prepare for War. Qui desiderat pacem praeparet bellum.--VEGETIUS. Introduction. Usually we prepare for what we wish, not for its opposite. But in the saying "If you wish for peace, prepare for war," the contradiction is verbal, not material. Body. A. Note (1) it is not peace at any price, not dishonourable surrender, but the peace that comes from strength: "Nemo me impune lacessit"; (2) it is not war of aggression (in aggression war-preparation is meant to end in war) but war to defend rights: "Defence not Defiance." The meaning of the saying is to be strong so that enemies will beware. "To be prepared for war is one of the most effectual means of preserving peace." GEORGE WASHINGTON. "The commonwealth of Venice in their armoury have this inscription: 'Happy is that city which in time of peace thinks of war.” BURTON. B. Instances from history (1) of a strong army or navy ensuring peace, (2) of a weak army or navy inviting attack. Conclusion. Caution.-The existence of huge armaments-even when honestly intended to secure peace--might cause war. For, "How oft the sight of means to do ill deeds Make deeds ill done!" IO. The Effects of the Crusades. Introduction. "The Crusades, from which the inhabitants of other countries gained nothing but relics and wounds, brought to the rising commonwealths of the Adriatic and Tyrrhene seas a large increase of wealth, dominion, and knowledge." Macaulay's love of antithesis may be responsible for this one-sided statement. The Crusades had these and other effects on Europe generally. Body. A. Political. Strengthening of central authority in the state at the expense of the feudal barons. Helping national unity. Breaking up of the Empire. B. Ecclesiastical. Increase of the Pope's power in Church and State. Increase of the clergy's power and wealth. C. Military. On Crusades, one knight as good as another : stimulus to personal heroism. Helped to develop scientific generalship. Rise of chivalry. D. Social. Civilising of the feudal barons. Development of towns. Standard of comfort raised: former luxuries became necessaries. E. Commerce. Expansion of trade between East and West. Improvement in seamanship, banking, etc. F. Intellectual. Intellect sharpened by meeting of different peoples. Mental horizon enlarged by adventure and travel. Extended knowledge of history and geography. French language widely used. Development of romantic poetry. In Conclusion. Effects not only widespread, but also lasting. regard to the Crusades, Bishop Stubbs remarked, "It is not too much to say that they have affected, and still remotely do affect, almost every political and social question." F. MISCELLANEOUS THEMES FOR ESSAYS. N.B. It is excellent practice to make outlines of essays with no intention of writing in full. 3. 4. 5. Our foods and where they come from. Your favourite hero in history, in fiction, at the present day. 18. The tides: how they originate and what they do. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. Earthquakes. The Crusades: how they began. How climate influences occupations and character. Bees. Do brutes reason? 25. Conscription. 26. How to be happy. 27. Mythology. 28. The Moon. 29. The five senses. 30. Pirates. 31. Smugglers. 32. Advantages and disadvantages of a good memory. 33. Gypsies. 40. Explain and exemplify the terms-race, language, nationality. 41. The qualities of an ideal sovereign. 42. The uses of great men. 44. What can be said for and against historical novels? 45. Describe the house you live in. 46. The influence of the invention of printing. 47. 48. 49. The choice of a profession. Presence of mind. Arctic explorers and their work. 50. Antarctic explorers and their work. 51. The North Sea. 52. The historical interest of the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. 53. Eclipses. 54. A deserted village. 55. The effect of the discovery of gold (or of diamonds) on a country. 56. Cats. 57. Building castles in the air. 58. Astrology. 59. Athletics: their uses-physical, mental, moral. 60. Why should one study the history of one's country? 64. Games and sports-which do you prefer? why? |