the best in the U. States, excepting the sea-island. Its indigo and tobacco are the best in Louisiana. The whole length of this noble river is estimated at 2500 miles, following its meanders, and it enters the Mississippi in about 31° 15′ north latitude. It probably discharged its waters into the gulf of Mexico, at some former period, without uniting with the Mississippi; and the Atchafalaya now occupies its former channel. Much of the soil through which the Red river passes, in its upper course, is of a reddish color, which is imparted to the waters, and gives the river its name.-Red river is also the name of a river in the northern part of North America, flowing into lake Winnipeg, and having a course of about 320 miles from the source of its principal branch in Red lake.

RED SEA, or ARABIAN GULF (anciently Arabicus Sinus); an extensive gulf of the Indian ocean, dividing Arabia from the opposite coast of Africa, extending in a north-west direction from the straits of Babelmandel to the isthmus of Suez, where it approaches to within sixty miles of the Mediterranean; lat. 12° to 30° N. Its length is about 1400 miles; breadth, where greatest, about 200. This sea was anciently a greater channel of commerce than in modern times. Its navigation is rendered difficult by frequent obstructions from coral rocks either above or under water, by storms, and by the paucity of safe harbors. The principal harbors are Suez, at its head; Cosseir, Suakem and Massuah on the west side; Jidda, Jambo, Ghunfude, Loheia, Hodeida and Mocha on the east side. This part of the Indian ocean was called by the Greeks the Erythrean sea, according to some accounts, from a king Erythras, of whom, however, nothing is known. The Greek epithet Zov@patos signifies also red; hence the appellation Mare rubrum, and in English, Red sea, not from any such color in its waters or sands.

REDBREAST (Motacilla rubecula). This little bird, although not a native of the U. States, is familiarly known to every child, from the numerous nursery stories, in which it plays a prominent part. The fame of this bird has arisen from its habit of seeking the aid of man during the winter season. During that inclement period of the year, it visits without dread the cottage of the peasant and the palace of the peer, tapping at the windows with its bill, as if to demand an asylum, and repays its hosts by its confidence, gathering the crumbs from the table, and warbling forth its thanks in the softest notes. The

moment, however, the spring appears, this familiarity with its protectors ceases, and it again hastens to its native haunts. The redbreast builds its nest at the foot of some shrub or upon a tuft of grass; it is composed of dried leaves, mixed with hair and moss, and lined with feathers; the female lays from five to seven eggs. Sometimes it covers its nest with leaves, leaving a small passage for egress and regress. The food of the redbreast varies with the season; in the spring it is composed of worms and insects, but in autumn is principally fruits and seeds. Its delicacy in preparing a worm before partaking of it, is somewhat remarkable; it first seizes it by one end in its beak, and beats it on the ground till the inner part comes away; then, taking it in the same manner by the other end, it cleanses the outer part, which is the only portion it eats. From its general familiarity with mankind, it has received a nom de caresse in almost every nation in Europe; in England it is known as the Robin Redbreast; in Germany it is termed Thomas Gierdet; and in Norway, Peter Ronsmad.

REDEMPTION, EQUITY OF. (See Equity of Redemption.)

REDEMPTORISTS; an order founded by Liguori (q. v.), and restored in Austria in 1820. Beside the usual monastic vows, they bind themselves to labor for the propagation of the Catholic faith, by the cure of souls, and the education of youth.

REDONDILLAS signified formerly a species of versification used in the south of Europe, consisting of a union of verses of four, six, and eight syllables, of which generally the first rhymed with the fourth, and the second with the third. At a later period, verses of six and eight syllables in general, in Spanish and Portuguese poetry, were called by this name, whether they made perfect rhymes or assonances only. These became common in the dramatic poetry of Spain.

REDOUBT, in fortification; a small square work without any defence but in front, used in trenches, lines of circumvallation, contravallation, and approach, as also for the lodging of corps de garde, and to defend passages. They are usually figures of three, four, five, or six sides, encompassed with a ditch and a bank of earth, which consists of two parts, called rampart and parapet.

REDTOP (tricuspis quinquefida). According to Pursh, this "is a most excellent grass. I have seen mountain meadows in Pennsylvania where they mow this grass twice a year, producing most

excellent crops each time, without manure, or any other trouble than the mowing, lasting for the space of sixteen years, without the least decline in the crops, the soil at the same time being a very indifferent one." These remarks of Pursh seem very extraordinary to those who are accustomed to see this grass in other parts of the U. States. It is a tall, coarse, loose, flowering, dry, solitary grass, grow ing sparingly in a sandy soil, and is one of the last of our native grasses which we should select as suitable for fodder. The subject, however, is worthy of inquiry. The stem is erect, four or five feet high, and smooth; the panicle very large, expanding and flexuous: the spikelets are purplish, about six-flowered, and pedunculate they resemble those of a festuca or fescue grass, but the inferior valve of the corolla has three points.

REED. This term is usually applied indiscriminately to all tall, broad-leaved grasses which grow along the banks of streams, and even to other plants, with similar leaves, growing in such situations. Strictly speaking, it belongs to the genus arundo, and especially to the A. phragmites, the largest grass of northern climates, and one of the most universally diffused. This grass grows in marshes, often occupying exclusively certain tracts, and attains the height of eight or ten feet, with leaves one or two inches broad, and bears large, nodding, silky panicles. It flowers in July. It is used in many countries for various economical purposes, as for thatching, for protecting embankments or sea-dikes, for ceilings to cottages, &c., for screens or fences, and hotbed covers in gardens, for chair-bottoms, for weavers' combs, &c. The flowers afford a green dye, which is occasionally used for coloring woollens; and it is said that flour may be made from the dried roots, capable of being converted into a wholesome and nutritive bread.

REED, Joseph, president of the state of Pennsylvania, was born in New Jersey, Aug. 27, 1741. In 1757, at the age of sixteen, he graduated at Princeton college. After studying law in that place, he repaired to England, where he prosecuted his studies until the disturbances produced in the colonies by the stamp act. On his return, he commenced the practice of his profession in Philadelphia, and met with distinguished success. He embarked actively in the political struggle of the day, on the side of independence, and, in 1774, was appointed one of the committee of correspondence of Philadelphia. He was

in the same year, also, president of the first provincial convention held in Pennsylvania, and a delegate to the continental congress. On the formation of the army, he resigned a lucrative practice, and, at the solicitation of general Washington, repaired to the camp at Cambridge, where he was appointed aid-de-camp and secretary to the commander-in-chief. Throughout this campaign, though acting merely as a volunteer, he displayed great courage and military ability. In the beginning of 1776, he was made adjutant-general, and contributed materially, by his local knowledge, to the success of the affairs at Trenton and Princeton. During the week which elapsed between the two actions, he proposed to six Philadelphia gentlemen, members of the city troop, to accompany him on an excursion to obtain information. They advanced into the vicinity of Princeton, where the enemy was stationed, and surprised twelve British dragoons in a farm-house, who surrendered to this party of half their number, and were conducted by them to the American camp. At the end of the year, he resigned the office of adjutant-general. In 1777, within a period of less than two months, he was appointed chief-justice of Pennsylvania, and named by congress a brigadier-general. He declined both offices, however, but continued to serve as a volunteer until the close of the campaign. He was present at almost every engagement in the northern and eastern section of the Union; and, although at each of the battles of Brandywine, White Marsh and Monmouth, he had a horse killed under him, he had the good fortune never to receive a wound. In 1778, he was elected a member of congress, and signed the articles of confederation. About this time, the British commissioners, governor Johnstone, lord Carlisle and Mr. Eden, invested with power to treat concerning peace, arrived in America; the former of whom addressed private letters to Mr. Laurens, Mr. Dana, Mr. Morris and Mr. Reed, offering them various inducements to lend themselves to his views. He caused information to be secretly communicated to general Reed, that, if he would exert his abilities to promote a reconciliation, £10,000 sterling, and the most valuable office in the colonies, should be at his disposal. The answer of Reed was, "I am not worth purchasing; but, such as I am, the king of Great Britain is not rich enough to do it." In the same year, he was unanimously elected president of the supreme executive council of Penn

sylvania, and continued in the office for the constitutional period of three years. At the time, there were violent parties in the state, and several serious commotions occurred, particularly a large armed insurrection in Philadelphia, which he suppressed, while he rescued a number of distinguished citizens from the most imminent danger of their lives, at the risk of his own, for which he received a vote of thanks from the legislature of the state. The revolt of the Pennsylvania line, also, in 1781, was suppressed through his instrumentality; and he was deputed, with general Potter, by the council of the state, with ample powers to redress the grievances complained of. To him, likewise, belongs the honor of having been the original detector and exposer of the character of Arnold, whom he brought to trial for mal-practices while in command at Philadelphia, notwithstanding a violent opposition on the floor of congress, and the exertions of a powerful party in Pennsylvania. Amidst the most difficult and trying scenes, the administration of Mr. Reed exhibited the most disinterested zeal and the greatest firmness and energy. His knowledge of law was very useful in a new and unsettled government; so that, although he found it in no small weakness and confusion, he left it, at the expiration of his term of office, in 1781, in as much tranquillity and stability as could be expected from the time and circumstances of the war. He then returned to his profession. In 1784, he again visited England, for the sake of his health; but his voyage was attended with but little good effect. On the 5th of March, in the following year, he died, in his forty-third year. In private life, he was accomplished in his manners, pure in his morals, fervent and faithful in his attachments. - REED-BIRD. (See Rice-Bunting.)

REEF; a certain portion of a sail comprehended between the top or bottom and a row of eyelet holes, generally parallel thereto. The intention of the reef is to reduce the surface of the sail in proportion to the increase of the wind; for which reason, there are several reefs parallel to each other in the superior sails: thus the top-sails of ships are generally furnished with three reefs, and sometimes four; and there are always three or four reefs parallel to the foot or bottom of those mainsails and fore-sails which are extended upon booms.-Reef also implies a chain of rocks lying near the surface of the water. REEFING; the operation of reducing a sail by taking in one or more of the reefs.

REEL; a lively Scotch dance, generally written in common time of four crotchets in a bar, but sometimes in jig-time of six quavers.

REELING. (See Silk Manufacture.)

REES, Abraham; a dissenting clergyman, born in Wales, in 1743. Being intended for the ministry, he was placed at the Hoxton academy, where his progress was so rapid that, in his nineteenth year, he was appointed mathematical tutor to the institution, and, soon after, resident tutor, in which capacity he continued upwards of twenty-two years. In 1768, he became pastor to the Presbyterian congregation of St. Thomas's, Southwark (since removed to Stamford street), and continued in that situation till 1783, when he accepted an invitation to become minister of a congregation in the Old Jewry, whose spiritual concerns he superintended till his death. On the establishment of the dissenting seminary at Hackney, in 1786, doctor Rees was elected resident tutor in the natural sciences, which place he held till the dissolution of the academy, on the death of doctor Kippis. In 1776, he was applied to by the proprietors of Chambers's Cyclopædia to superintend an enlarged edition of that compilation, which, after nine years' incessant labor, he completed in four folio volumes. The success of this work led to a new undertaking, similar in its nature, but more comprehensive in its plan, projected and carried on by him, under the title of the New Cyclopædia (45 vols., 1802-20; republished Philadelphia, 47 vols.). Doctor Rees obtained his degree from the university of Edinburgh. He was also a fellow of the royal and Linnæan societies. His death took place June 9, 1825.

REEVE, Clara; born at Ipswich, in 1738, and died there in 1808. She possessed great learning and research, which she displayed in a translation of Barclay's Latin romance of Argenis, under the title of the Phoenix, or the History of Polyarchus and Argenis (1772); and the Progress of Romance. Her other works are the well-known tale of the Old English Baron; the Two Mentors; the Exile; the School for Widows; a Plan of Education; and Memoirs of Sir Roger de Clarendon (4 vols.).

REEVING, in the sea language; the putting a rope through a block. Hence to pull a rope out of a block is called unreeving.

REFERENCE. (See Arbitration.)
REFLECTION. (See Optics.)

REFORMATION. The reformation of the church, in its head and members, had become the watchword of all the lovers of morality and religion as early as the fifteenth century. Christianity, which was intended to elevate mankind, and to make them happy, had been diverted more and more, in the hands of its priests, from its original design. The successful endeavors of the Roman bishops to extend their spiritual sway over all Christendom, to direct the actions of kings, and the improvement of society, undoubtedly contributed much, in the confusion of the ages which followed the irruption of the barbarians into Southern Europe, to soften the savage manners of the race which had trampled down the old world, with whatever remained of refinement. The Christian missionaries and monks sowed the seeds of milder manners in the German forests, and among the northern barbarians, and promoted the civilization of the converted nations. Many beneficial consequences resulted from the unity of faith and worship; from the dependence of all the Western churches on Rome; from that legislative supremacy over the nations which compelled the popes (q. v.) to adopt a settled policy, in the middle ages; and the Roman church may justly claim great merit in regard to the gradual formation of European society. But the church enjoyed her victory with so little moderation; her servants violated so openly, in their lives and doctrines, the spirit of their Divine Master, that the opposition to priestly despotism which had early arisen in the East, and had been transmitted through numerous sects to the secret societies of the middle ages, became quite active in the thirteenth century, and grew more violent in proportion as the papal power sought to exterminate it with fire and sword. The question, What is truly Christian, and conducive to human happiness, in the doctrines and usages of the Roman church? must often have been suggested to the minds of sincere clergymen and intelligent laymen. The arrogance of the priests exasperated the princes; the encroachments of the mendicant friars did injury to the secular ecclesiastics; and a thousand innocent victims of the inquisition called for vengeance. Still the authority of the pope over the public mind, even in the fourteenth century, was such as scarcely to suffer the murmurings of discontent to be heard. The writings of

the continent, and aroused Huss (q. v.), with his Bohemian followers. But the fifteenth century was not ripe for a reform, and the papal party was strong enough to suppress every attempt towards improvement, as appears alike from the conduct of the princes and the people at the breaking out of the Hussite disturbances, and from the results of the councils of Constance and Bâsle. But, soon after, the views of scholars were enlarged by the study of the classics, revived by the emigration of a few learned Greeks; the means of information were vastly increased by the art of printing; materials for thinking were laid before the people by instructive works in the vulgar tongues, and by the new universities, of which seven were instituted in Germany alone, between 1451 and 1502; the number of learned men increased; and the intelligence for which the reformation was to open a way, began to act generally and powerfully. The reform, which the liberal divines had warmly advised, with little success, now waited but the call of a master spirit. Savonarola (q. v.) arose for this purpose in Florence; but the same funeral pile consumed him and his work together. Some monarchs also attempted something. Charles VIII of France caused the Sorbonne, in 1497, to declare it expedient that a council should be held every ten years for effecting reforms in the church, and that otherwise the bishops should assemble for that purpose. Maximilian I laid before the Roman court the strong remonstrances of the German princes, passed in the diets of 1500 and 1510. By the influence of France, an independent council was held at Pisa, in 1511, in spite of pope Julius II; but, although its few speakers conducted themselves with great boldness, it was soon overthrown by its own weakness, and by the decrees of the council in the Lateran, which was opposed to it in 1512, and which served, in the hands of the pope, to palliate his measures anew. In general, in all the plans that had been proposed for the reformation of the abuses of the church, on one side political ends had too often been intermixed, and on the other, in the heat of zeal against individual wrongs, the chief faults in the doctrine and discipline of the church, from which all the other evils originated, had been too much overlooked. Hence nothing took place but fruitless disputes and violent persecutions of the innovators, or futile political negotiations, in which the pope always prevailed in the end. The services

of Reuchlin (q. v.), in the cultivation of the Greek language, and his victory over the opposers of learning in Cologne, had an important effect. The cultivated taste and the sound understanding which appeared in the writings of Erasmus, addressed to the most distinguished men in church and state, exerted a wider influence, and promoted both the cultivation of classical learning and the diffusion of liberal views on the subject of religion. Of still greater power over the mass of the people was the host of satires, epigrams, caustic allegories, and coarse jokes, at the expense of the church and the monks, from Renard (q. v.) the Fox to the more delicate raillery of these two scholars, who were not ardent nor bold enough to take a decisive step. Thus, by the concurrence of favorable circumstances, and by the progress of a new spirit struggling for light and freedom, the way of truth was gradually laid open. The centre of Europe, together with the north, which had long submitted with reluctance to Rome, was ready to countenance the boldest measures for shaking off the priestly yoke, of which the best and most reflecting men had become impatient. But no one anticipated the quarter whence the first blow would be struck. Frederic III, elector of Saxony, a wise prince, but a zealous Catholic, and a great collector of relics, only followed the example of other German princes in establishing a university at Wittenberg (1502), whither, among other learned men, he invited Martin Luther, an Augustine monk of Erfurt, to be professor of theology, This man-of a powerful mind, and distinguished more for his deep piety, and strong love of truth, than for extensive erudition-was well acquainted with the Holy Scriptures, and, by a visit to Rome, in 1510, on some business of his order, had also become acquainted with the corruptions of the papal court. Leo X (q. v.) was created pope in 1513. Little affected by the universal desire for reformation in the church, he seemed placed at its head merely to employ its revenues in the gratification of his princely tastes. Albert, elector of Mentz and archbishop of Magdeburg, a prince of a similar character, received from Leo, in 1516, permission to sell indulgences within his own jurisdiction, on condition of sharing the profits with the pope. In this traffic, Albert employed, among others, John Tetzel, a Dominican monk of Leipsic, experienced in the business, who went about from place to place, carrying on his trade with the most unblushing impudence, and ex

tolling his certificates above the papal bulls (which required repentance), as unconditional promises of the forgiveness of sins, in time and eternity. The buyers were numerous, and the gain great; for the illiterate people still venerated highly their ancient superstitions; and the easy absolution from the deepest guilt, and relief from temporal penance and eternal punishment, for a few groschen, were alluring to the rude multitude. (See Indulgence.) When Tetzel commenced his traffic at Jüterbogk, in 1517, purchasers flocked to him from Wittenberg, which was in the neighborhood, and there, showing the certificates to their confessors, denied all necessity for new penances. Luther set his face against this abuse, first in his sermons (for he performed the duties of a preacher, as well as professor), and afterwards (in order to prepare the way for an academic disputation on the subject, according to long established usage) in ninety-five theses, or questions, which he affixed to the door of the great church, October 31, 1517. In these he declared himself warmly against the abuse of indulgences, displayed a lively zeal for the Holy Scriptures, and for the honor of the church and the pope, and concluded with a prayer for instruction. His sermons on indulgences were published in German, and, in a few weeks, were spread over all Germany. His theses were in Latin, and were soon spread through other Christian nations. Luther also urged his spiritual superiors and the pope to put a stop to the traffic of Tetzel, and to reform the corruptions of the church in general, in letters at once bold and respectful. With the exception of Scultetus, bishop of Brandenburg, no one made him a becoming answer. On the contrary, the most absurd libels, full of extravagant assertions of the power of the pope and his indulgences, were brought forward by Tetzel (in whose name Conrad Wimpina, professor of theology at Frankfort on the Oder, took up his pen), by the Augustine Sylvester Prierias, a courtier of the pope at Rome, and by Jacob Hogstraaten, the supreme inquisitor at Cologne, who had been rendered contemptible by his dispute with Reuchlin; but these, and the virulent Notes of Eckius (Eck) of Ingolstadt, against Luther, were too miserable to escape the ridicule of the well informed, and only drew attention to his bold enterprise. The severe replies, in which he exposed the weakness of these advocates for indulgences, and his Resolutiones, by which he illustrated his theses,