er, born in 1760, at Cluny, where he was educated by the monks of the celebrated abbey of the place. The sight of the pictures here awakened his taste for painting, which being observed by the monks, the bishop of Macon had him instructed in drawing at Dijon. After having studied in Rome, whither he was sent by the Burgundian estates, Prudhon returned to France in 1789, and lived some time in obscurity in Paris, but finally gained reputation by his celebrated allegorical picture, Crime pursued by Divine Justice. He died in 1823. His principal productions are Psyche borne away by the Zephyrs, Zephyr sporting over the Water, an Assumption, and a Dying Christ. Some have censured his design, and the sameness of his heads; but his brilliant coloring, and the fine expression and grace of his pencil, are generally admired.

PRUNES. (See Plums.)

PRUSSIA; the smallest of the (so called) great powers of Europe; a country in several respects singular, being composed of very heterogeneous parts, several of them not connected by any common feeling or common interest, not even by geographical situation, but merely by artificial political system; and yet it holds an influential station among the European powers. Another very striking feature of this monarchy is the care which it bestows on science and education. The sciences are no where fostered with more care, and there are few countries in which common schools are more widely diffused. Notwithstanding the effect which this must have in enlightening the people, and notwithstanding the attention which has been paid, for several generations, to the administration of justice, there is an almost incomprehensible backwardness in every thing which belongs to a civic spirit, chiefly, it is probable, from three reasons: 1. that the greatness of Prussia proceeded from, and has been supported by, military power, the power of standing armies, and the whole system of government has been carried on with something of a military spirit by numerous officers in regular gradations, who execute the orders received from their superiors. 2. That many of the various parts composing the monarchy have no national interest, as Prussians, in each other; so that the noblest germs of civil virtue remain undeveloped in the breasts of the people, whose interests are diverse. We may add here, by the way, that Prussia, of late, has neglected the most important means of giving coherency to her population, namely, the

assembling of representatives from all the various provinces in one legislative body. Nothing would have united the people more strongly than thus awakening a national feeling for a common iustitution. 3. That, since the time of Frederic the Great, Prussia has felt obliged to seek a strong ally in Russia to strengthen herself against Austria-an alliance which has much retarded her civil advancement. We shall now proceed to the Statistics and Geography of Prussia. The Prussian monarchy, which contained 3,000,000 of inhabitants, on 46,428 square miles, with an army of 76,000 men, when Frederic the Great ascended the throne, contained, in 1804, without reckoning Neufchatel, 9,977,497 inhabitants, upon 120,395 square miles (with 38,000,000 of Prussian dollars income, about 32,000,000 Spanish), and at the end of 1828, 12,726,823 inhabitants, upon 106,852 square miles, with 3,316,459 buildings, to which is to be added Neufchatel, with 51,560 inhabitants, upon 296 square miles; and, at the close of 1830, the number of the inhabitants 12,939,877. The whole increase of the population in 14 years has been 2,247,082. In 1826, the population stood thus:

was

10,038,457 2,028,500

87,600 153,687

The military consisted, in 1829, of 165,000 regular troops (of which 17,908 were guards, 19,132 cavalry, 15,718 artillery, and 104,712 infantry of the line), and of 359,248 Landwehr (q. v.), of which 179,624 were of the first class, and 179,624 of the second class: the whole military force, therefore, comprised 524,248 men. Revenue for 1829 about 36,190,000 Spanish dollars; national debt, in 1820, 135,370,000. The revenue, for 1829, was levied thus:

Domains and royal forests, $3,223,350
Sale of domains,
Mines, salt works,
Manufactures of porcelain,
Post department,
Lotteries,

Salt monopoly,

712,500

712,500

9,975

773,750

487,350

3,307,887

Inhabitants.

236,830 90,090 64,499 67,941

61,902 44,049

The peace of 1815 did not give compactness to the irregular territory of Prussia. It consists (Neufchatel not included) of an eastern and a western part: the former, which is much the larger, is bounded by Russia, Austria, the kingdom of Saxony, the small states in Thuringia, the electorate of Hesse, Hanover, Brunswick, Mecklenburg, and on the north by the Baltic. The latter is separated from the former by the electorate of Hesse, Hanover and Brunswick, and is bounded by the Netherlands, France, Bavaria, Lippe-Detmold, Nassau, Waldeck, and other small territories. The country is mostly level, with small elevations. The island of Rugen, with its promontory Stubbenkammer, is the highest point in the lands on the Baltic. The principal chains of mountains are the Sudetes, with the Riesengebirge (the Schneekoppe, 4950 feet high); the Hartz (q. v.), with the Brocken; the Thuringian forest; the Westerwald, with the Siebengebirge; the Hundsrück, with the Hochwald; and the Eifel, a continuation of the Ardennes. The rivers are mentioned below. The climate is, on the whole, variable, and severe rather than mild and warm; yet, in the valleys of the Nahe, Moselle, Saar and the Rhine, it is very fine. Since 1815, the monarchy has been divided into ten provinces and seven military districts. The provinces are subdivided into two or

Westphalia,
Cleves-Berg,

Lower Rhine,.
East Prussia,

West Prussia,
Posen,

1,409,388

1,228,544

1,075,025

1,127,297

1,216,154

792,207 1,064,506

Neufchatel has 51,580. Though the geographical character and financial resources of Prussia were much improved by the peace of Paris, the first still gives rise to many inconveniences. Prussia has an unguarded frontier from Seidenberg, in Upper Lusatia, to Wittichenau; an open frontier towards Russia (as a Russian army may, at any time, come within three days' march of Breslau, and to fortify the Prosna would cost millions), and her Rhenish provinces compel her to keep up always a strong military force in the direction of France-all which shows, if we may use the phrase, the artificial existence of Prussia, her unnatural position. Prussia can only partially overcome these disadvantages by immense expense; and nothing but the establishment of a general government for the whole of Germany can afford an adequate barrier against the threatening power of Russia. Prussia, which has but a third part of the population of France, has yet 712 miles more of frontier. At one extremity she touches the gates of the French fortress Thionville on the Moselle, while the other is watered by the Memel and the Niemen, and we seek in vain for a body to unite the two arms, which are connected only by the double military road running through Hanover. There are, properly speaking, three Prussias, one in Poland, one in Germany, one between the Meuse and the Rhine. The kingdom has three vulnerable parts, towards Russia, Austria, and France; hence its situation is dependent. The commerce is various, yet would be much greater if those countries which

now form Prussia formed part of one great state, comprising all Germany, because her trade with the interior of Germany is now obstructed. The Prussian territory extends 522 miles on the Baltic, and has several bays and ports. Its inland trade is promoted by the rivers Oder, Vistula, Elbe and Saale (the two latter of which are connected by seven canals with the two former), the Rhine, and also the Memel, Pregel, Warta, Netze, Havel, Spree, Weser, Ems, Ruhr, Lippe and Moselle, which either flow through Prussia, or belong entirely to it. There are rich lands along the banks of most of these rivers. The mineral treasures of the country, which are considerable, with the exception of the nobler metals, are much wrought. Amber is found almost exclusively on the coast of Hinder Pomerania and East Prussia. Cattle of all kinds are raised: horses are bred chiefly in East Prussia. Agriculture and the raising of sheep (Prussia has more than 15,000,000 of sheep) have attained a high degree of perfection. Manufactures are carried on in the mountainous part of Silesia, in Ravensberg, the Mark, Berg, and the other Rhenish provinces, chiefly of articles of domestic production; for example, manufactures of linen, amounting, in Silesia, annually to 11,000,000 of Prussian dollars (above 7,400,000 Spanish), of wool (in Silesia, Brandenburg, Saxony, the Lower Rhine, Aix-la-Chapelle, Burtscheid, Stolberg, &c.), and manufactures of various kinds of hardware. Iron and. steel wares are largely made at Berlin, Solingen, Remscheid, Iserlohn. The value of all these manufactures was estimated, in 1804, at 51,000,000, and, including all sorts of articles for consumptions, at more than 85,000,000 of Prussian dollars, and this year may be taken as a standard. Dantzic, Stettin, Königsberg, Memel, Elbing, Pillau, Colberg, Stralsund and Swinemünde (q. v.) are seaports, some of them not unimportant. Though Prussia employed many thousand sailors before the introduction of the continental system, yet it has no navy to protect its commerce; and some forced attempts of the government to carry the Prussian flag to distant parts of the world, have by no means tended to the benefit of commerce. By a law of Sept. 21, 1821, a small coin (silver grosh), of which thirty make one Prussian dollar, was introduced. Government gain by it fourteen per cent. Most of the inhabitants of Prussia are LuA Prussian dollar is equal to about sixtyeight cents of our money.

therans: the reigning family are Calvinistic. In 1824, the king introduced a new liturgy, which, in 1825, 5343 of the 7782 evangelical churches in the Prussian monarchy had accepted. According to the concordate with the pope, in the bull De Salute Animarum, of July 16, 1821. the bishops of Münster, Treves and Paderborn are under the archbishop of Cologne, and the bishop of Culm is under the archbishop of Gnesen and Posen. The bishoprics of Breslau and Ermeland are under no archbishop. The eight chapters elect their bishops; the pope confirms the election, and the chapters inquire, before the election, whether the persons proposed for their votes would be agreeable to the king. The members of the chapters are elected by the pope in the months one, three, five, seven, nine, eleven; in the other months by the bishop. In the first case, respect is paid to the wishes of the king; in the latter, the election is subject to the royal confirmation. The following orders of knighthood exist in Prussia: the order of the Black Eagle, founded in 1701, at the coronation of Frederic I, consisting of but one class; the order of the Red Eagle, originally an order of the house of Anspach and Baireuth, and confirmed in 1791, by Frederic William II, and, in 1810, divided into three classes; the Louisa order, founded in 1814, for females; the order of Merit, founded in 1740; that of the Iron Cross, with two classes, for those who fought in the campaigns of 1813-15; the order of St. John, besides various other honorary designations, medals, crosses, &c. In 1823, the king established provincial estates both where they had previously existed, and where they had not. This was to pass for a fulfilment of his promise made in 1815, to give a constitution to his people, but was, in fact, an evasion and a mockery. The estates consisting of nobility, citizens and peasants, have the right to give their opinion when they are consulted, and in questions relating to taxation, they are always to be consulted; but in no case is their opinion binding on the government. Though Prussia is an absolute monarchy, all persons are equally subject to the laws, and justice is impar tially administered (except in the case of accusations for political offences); all are equally bound to do military duty, and the way to office is nominally open to all. Feudal services were abolished or rendered redeemable by the edict of Oct. 9, 1807, which must be considered as a consequence of the principles introduced by

the French revolution. The internal organization of the state rests on the edict of Oct. 9, 1707, and the administration was settled by the law of April 30, 1815. A general presides over each military division, and a high president (Oberpräsident) over each province. The conduct of public affairs belongs to the governments; the administration of justice to the high courts of the country (Oberlandesgerichte). Each "government" has a president and two chief divisions, the first of which attends to the police, the estates, the military, and the general affairs of the government, and is under the minister of the interior. The second division, under the minister of the police, has the charge of all financial affairs. Each province is divided into circles, superintended by a counsellor (Landrath), the organ of both divisions. The high presidents are permanent deputies of the ministers. To them are intrusted all those matters of political regulation, whose effect cannot be restricted to a single government; in particular, they are the presidents of the consistorial and medical authorities, and, at the same time, presidents of the government in the capital of the province. At the head of the state stands the monarch, who issues through his "privy cabinet" cabinet orders, signed by himself. March 30, 1817, a council of state was established: it is the highest deliberative authority, but has no part in executive business. It examines all plans, proposals, grievances, &c. The king presides, or the chancellor of state, or a member temporarily substituted. In 1819, this council consisted of sixty-six persons, including the princes. Under the "ministry of state" (consisting of the prince-royal, nine ministers of state and six reporting counsellors) stand immediately the privy state and cabinet archives, the high committee of examination, and the board of statistics. The ministry of state consists of, 1. the ministry of the royal household; 2. of foreign affairs; 3. of justice; 4. of finances; 5. of manufactures, cominerce and public works; 6. of the army; 7. the interior and the police; 8. of ecclesiastical affairs, education and health; 9. of accounts (Staatsbuchhalterei). Independent of these is the general post-office. The general directory of foreign commerce has formed a separate department since 1820. The same is the case with the chief bank at Berlin. (For the Prussian law, and the administration of justice, see the end of this article.) The Prussian government has fulfilled its pecuniary obligations with

scrupulous exactness: thus it behaved honorably in its new provinces to the public creditors, who were so long ill-treated under the confederation, and acknowledged the whole debt in Westphalia, which had been reduced to a third by the king of Westphalia. The reigning house in Prussia is the house of Hohenzollern. The present king is Frederic William III (q.v.) His son, the prince-royal, Frederic William, was born Oct. 15, 1795. Of the previous kings, Frederic I died 1713, Frederic William I in 1740, Frederic II (the Great) in 1786, Frederic William II in 1797.-History of Prussia. The Teutonic knights received, in 1226, a strip of land on the Vistula from Conrad of Masovia (see Poland), in order that they might protect Poland from the heathen inhabitants of Prussia. From 1230 to 1283, they carried on a war of extermination with eleven Prussian tribes. These at last became Christians, and adopted the German customs. The power of the Teutonic knights increased rapidly, and, in the fifteenth century, their territory extended from the Oder, along the Baltic, to the bay of Finland, and contained cities like Dantzic, Elbing, Thorn, Culm, &c. About 1404, they ruled over 2,500,000 of people, and had an annual income of 800,000 marks. But the knights became tyrants, and the nobility and cities had no means of escaping their oppression but by submitting to Poland. A terrible war ensued, from 1454 to 1466, and the country was filled with bloodshed and devastation. In 1511, the knights elected Albert of Brandenburg, son of the margrave of Anspach, to the office of grand master, with a view of strengthening themselves. In 1525, the order was abolished entirely in Prussia, and its territory was converted into an hereditary duchy, under prince Albert and his male descendants or brothers, as a fief of Poland. The republic of Poland acknowledged the sovereignty of the elector of Brandenburg in the duchy of Prussia by the treaty of Welau, Sept. 19, 1657. Towards other powers, and especially Sweden, the great elector Frederic William (q. v.) also maintained a respectable attitude. His son Frederic III placed the royal crown upon his head, Jan. 18, 1701, as Frederic I, thereby elevating Prussia Proper to a kingdom. Vanity probably led him to take this step, but, under him, the monarchy increased in territory, and a desire for further increase-a necessary consequence of the scattered condition of its component parts-and the assumption of a station which required augmented

power to support it-became an early, and, it may be said, a ruling trait of Prussian policy, and the desire is still strong, for the original motive still remains. Frederic William I (q. v.) received Stettin in 1720, by the peace of Stockholm, and also Prussian Gueldres. He was a tyrannical soldier, but sagacious, a friend of justice when it did not interfere with his caprices or plans. His desire to keep on foot a standing army of 60,000 men, led him to the enlisting of foreigners. He was frugal, and under him began the system so much developed by Frederic II, of making the internal government as much as possible a machine. His love of justice not unfrequently led him to infringe the independence of the judiciary. With many resources which waited only for developement, Prussia came to Frederic the Great, who made it one of the first powers of Europe. Claims upon parts of Silesia were used as a pretext for the invasion of that province. After several wars, he remained in possession of the chief part of it. East Friesland was united with Prussia in 1743. From the year 1763, Frederic's chief care was directed to the internal government, almost all the branches of which he improved; but the great number of troops which he kept on foot induced him to make the increase of revenue the chief object of his government, and the whole system of internal administration was regulated with a view to make it a productive machine. Square miles and population were then the measure of power and happiness in the policy of the European cabinets; the first partition of Poland, in 1772, was the consequence; and, from that time, Prussia sacrificed Poland to Russia, to secure its aid as an ally against Austria. The monarchy was almost doubled under Frederic the Great. He left to his nephew, Frederic William II, a territory of 71,670 square miles, with 5,800,000 inhabitants, and an army of 220,000 men (which, however, consumed almost four fifths of the revenue of the state), and a treasure of 50 million Prussian dollars (about 34 million Spanish). Frederic the Great had no true love for his nation; his ruling passions were the love of fame and of power. He regarded the Prussian nation as a foreign general regards the army under his command. More than any other prince he undermined the German empire, which, it must be owned, had become worse than worthless. He separated entirely the army and the citizens-a system whose natural termination was the punishment

of an insolent nobility on the field of Jena. Under his government industry was encouraged; the press enjoyed considerable liberty; Frederic was, in general, a lover of justice. With him died the principle which had given motion to the whole system, and Mirabeau, in his Histoire secrète, calls Prussia pourriture avant maturité. His successor, Frederic William II, was a profligate and weak man; the country was badly governed; the finances exhausted, and her politics became wavering, because Frederic the Great had elevated her to such a rank among the European states, that she was obliged to take a prominent part in the most important affairs of the continent; but after she had lost the aid of his genius, she had not sufficient power to act independently. This wavering character continued for a long series of years. With Frederic the Great, also, or, at least, under him, began a singular contradiction in Prussian politics. While her government promotes with great liberality the diffusion of knowledge, and manifests a real enthusiasm for science, and several of her most eminent public men are among the friends of free institutions, yet history finds her siding with Russia, and, of late, also, with Austria, all three opposing with a vain obstinacy the irresistible progress of liberty. At Reichenbach (q. v.), in 1790, Prussia appeared as mediator in the peace with the Porte, and in August, 1791, became connected again with the court of Vienna by the convention of Pilnitz. (q. v.) The profligate extravagance of the court of Frederic William II required large supplies of money; and Prussia and Russia seized upon the remainder of Poland, under the pretext of putting down Jacobinism, although Frederic William had assented to the new Polish constitution of May 3, 1791. The cabinet, which surrounded the imbecile king, was without principle; it took possession of the territory of Nuremberg; it shared, in 1793 and 1795, in the partitions of Poland, and made a secret treaty (August 5, 1796) with France. After many inconsistent steps caused by her artificial situation, Prussia resolved upon the maintenance of a strict neutrality, which, in the state of Europe at that time, was impossible. In 1803, France occupied Hanover. In 1805, when a third coalition was forming against France, Prussia wavered more than ever. emperor of Russia, Alexander, appeared at Berlin, and brought about the convention of Potsdam, Nov. 3, 1805; but, after the battle of Austerlitz, Prussia sought for

The