BOLIVIA.

the air is nearly as dry as the earth; e. of the mountains, the trade-wind vapors from the Atlantic are copious enough to feed, and to flood, the parent streams of the mightiest rivers on the globe; and within the valley of Titicaca (minimum height 12,441 ft.) the clouds barely supply the comparatively scanty evaporation. In temperature, B., almost entirely tropical, may claim to embrace all the zones in the world. Each section, except the sandy wastes on the Pacific, has its peculiar vegetation. The Andes yield a coarse grass for the guanaca, llama, alpaca, and vicunha. The table-land of Titicaca is fertile, but is remarkable for its mineral productions. The silver mines of Potosi, after yielding 2,000 millions of dollars, are believed to be inexhaustible (total silver product of B. 1890 $11,168,572); while gold, lead, tin, salt, sulphur, nitre, and copper are abundant. B. abounds in the finest supply of india-rubber. Other products are cocoa, cinchona, and coffee.

The constitution of B., as founded by Bolivar, has been subjected to many modifications. In its present form, promulgated 1880, Oct. 28, it vests the executive authority in a pres., elected for 4 years by a direct popular vote. The pres. is aided by two vice-presidents and a ministry controlling five depts.: foreign relations and worship, finance and industry, govt. and colonization, justice and public instruction, and war. The legislative authority is in a congress of two houses, senate of 16 members (1893), and chamber of 64 deputies. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, 7 dist. courts, and numerous courts of local justices. The elective franchise is extended to all persons who can read and write. The seat of govt. is changed frequently: 1889 it was at Chuquisaca or Sucre; 1890-1 at La Paz; 1892 at Oruro; 1893 at Chuquisaca.

The state religion is the Rom. Cath.; but all other forms are permitted. Education is free in primary depts., and nominally compulsory. In 1890 there were 493 primary schools with 649 teachers and 24.244 pupils; 16 secondary schools and colleges with 91 instructors and 2,126 pupils; 5 universities with 83 professors and 1,384 students in law, theology, and medicine; and a milit. school with 9 professors and 30 pupils. As B. has no sea-coast, its foreign trade is carried on through Chile, Peru, and Brazil. The average value of imports is $5,830,000; exports, two-thirds of which are silver, $8,750,000: estimated revenue (1892-3) $3,958,668, expenditure, $4,096,668; internal debt (1891) $4,450,000, foreign $622,121, total $5,072,121.

B. 1018-1524 formed a part of the Inca empire of Cuzco; 1780 the Spanish dominion was established; 1825, a congress declared the country an independent republic; 1835, B. invaded Peru and annexed a part of its territory; 1839, B. was defeated by Chile; 1866, it joined the alliance of Peru, Chile, and Ecuador against Spain: and 1879-83 was engaged as an ally of Peru in a war against Chile, in which it lost its seaboard territory.

BOLKHOV-BOLLARDS.

BOLKHOV, bol-ko': ancient town of Russia, govt. of Orel. B. is built chiefly of wood, and has more than 20 churches. It manufactures gloves, hosiery, leather; and trades in tallow, hemp, hides, and oil. Pop. (1892) 28,000.

BOLL, n. bōl [Dut. bolle, a head: W. bul, the husk that incloses the seed of flax: Dan. bulne, to swell-see BOLE 1 and BOLLED]: in Scot., an old measure of capacity of four Imperial bushels, or half a sack; in country transactions the boll is reckoned at 140 lbs., but the boll differs in some places; a boll of oats is equal to 6 bushels. In bot., the pod or capsule of a plant: V. to form into a pericarp or seed-vessel. BOLLING, imp. BOLLED, pp. bōld, had seed-vessels or pods formed.

BOL LANDISTS: an association or succession of Jesu its by whom the Acta Sanctorum (q.v.), or Lives of the Saints of the Christian Church, were collected and published (1643-1794). They received their name from JOHN BOLLAND (1596-1665; b. in the Netherlands), who, with the help of Gottfried Henschen, edited the first 5 vols., containing the month of January, in 2 vols., pub. 1643, and the month of February, in 3 vols., 1658. The project had been undertaken by a Flemish Jesuit, Heribert of Rosweyd, and on his death in 1629, his collections were intrusted to Bolland, who established himself in Antwerp, opened a correspondence all over Europe, and associated young men of his order with himself in the work. Several distinguished names are ranked among the B., as Gottfried Henschen (d. 1681), Daniel Papebroek (1714), Conrad Janning (1723), Peter Bosch (1736), Suyskens (1771), Hubens (1782), Dom Anselmo Berthod (1788), and Jos. Ghesquière (1802). The abolition of the order of Jesuits in 1773 caused the removal of the Bollandist Soc. to the monastery of Coudenbeg, in Brussels, till thepersecutions under Joseph II. brought about its dissolution. In 1789, the abbey of Tongerloo, in Brabant, took up the colossal task of carrying on the Acta Sanctorum; but scarcely had the 53d vol. appeared, 1794, May, when the French occupation put an end to the work. It was not till 1837 that a new Bollandist association of Jesuits was formed, under the patronage of the Belgian government, which set aside a yearly sum of 6,000 francs for this object. In 1845, this new society published, in two parts, the 54th vol. of the work, containing, among others, the life of St. Theresa, extending to 671 folio pages. More than 60 vols. had appeared 1887, carrying the work into Nov.; so that at least the next generation may see the completion of the vast series. of which Gibbon has truly said, that through the medium of fable and superstition it communicates much historical and philosophical instruction.' Guizot, having ascertained that the 3 vols. for April contain 1,472 lives, estimates that the 53 vols., published before the French revolution suspended the progress of the undertaking, contain more than 25,000 lives of saints.

BOLLARDS, n. plu. běl'lărdz [Icel. bolr, the trunk of a

BOLLED-BOLOGNA.

tree]: large posts set in the ground, at each side of the docks, to lash and secure hawsers for docking ships.

BOLLED, a. bōld [Dan, bulne, to swell; bullen, swollen: Icel. bolgja, to swell]: swollen; puffed up: see BOLL.

BOLLINGS, n. plu. bōl lingz [see BOLE 1]: pollard-trees topped and stripped.

BOLOGNA, bo-lon ya: province of the kingdom of Italy, formerly one of the delegations of the Papal States. It is bounded n. and e. by the provinces of Ferrara and Ravenna, and w. and s. by those of Modena and Florence; area 1,374 sq. m. Sloping gradually up from the plains of Lombardy in the n., its surface becomes mountainous in the s., which is traversed by offsets from the Apennines. B. is well watered, and the streams are extensively used in the irrigation of rice-fields. It is very productive, yielding corn, wine of middling quality, olive-oil, fruit, vegetables of all kinds, hemp, flax, and saffron. Silkworms are reared in great numbers. Marble, chalk, and gypsum are the mineral products; hemp, rice, and silk the principal articles of trade. Pop. (1891) est. 482,219.

BOLOGN'A: one of the most ancient cities of Italy, beautifully situated on a fertile plain at the foot of the lower slopes of the Apennine Mountains, lat. 44 30 n., long. 11 21' e. It is inclosed by a high brick wall, some 5 or 6 m. in extent, but without fortifications; the canal of Reno intersects it, and, on either side, the rivers Reno and Savena sweep past its walls. B. was, next to Rome, the most important city of the Papal States. The streets in the newer parts of the city are spacious and well paved, with rich and varied colonnades, affording shelter alike from sun and rain; in the older portion, the streets are narrow, crooked, and dirty, and the arcades correspondingly low and gloomy. The city is adorned with many fine palaces of the nobility, rich in fresco-paintings by the great masters. Pre-eminently worthy of notice is the Piazzo Maggiore, the Forum of B. in the middle ages,' which includes, among other fine buildings, the Palazzo Maggiore del Pubblico, and the Palazzo del Podestà. Among the fine frescoed rooms and galleries of the former, that of the Sala Farnese is the most imposing; the latter is interesting as having been the prison and death-scene, 1272, of Enzius, the son of the Emperor Frederick II., and also as containing the archives of the city. The great feature of B., however, is its religious edifices, remarkable both for the beauty of their architecture, and for the abundance and splendor of their art-treasures. It has more than 70 churches, the most remarkable of which are San Stefano, rich in relics, ancient tombs, and Madonnas, Lombard architecture, and Greek frescoes of the 11th and 12th c.; San Petronio-which, though unfinished, is the largest church in B.-a noble specimen of Italian Gothic, with a meridian traced on the floor by the astronomer Cassini, and numerous splendid bas-reliefs by Jacopo della Quercia and Tribolo, as well as masterpieces by other artists both in sculpture and in painting; San Domenico, with

BOLOGNA,

works by Michael Angelo and Niccolò di Pisa, and many other eminent sculptors-and paintings and frescoes by Guido, Francia, Lodovico Caracci, Marchesi, Simone da Bologna, Colonna, and others; and the cathedral dedicated to St. Peter, also rich in works of art, and interesting historical associations, which, indeed, cluster around all the structures mentioned. In the centre of the city are two remarkable leaning towers, constructed about the beginning of the 12th c.; the taller, the Asinella, has a height of 256 ft., with, in 1706, an inclination of 3 ft. 2 inches. In 1813, a careful measurement showed that this inclination had slightly increased. The other tower, the Garisenda-alluded to in the 31st canto of Dante's Inferno-has an elevation of 130 ft., with a lean of 8 feet. The Univ. of B. is said to date its origin from the 5th c., when it was founded by Theodosius II., and to have been afterward restored by Charlemagne. It was not, however, until the 12th c., when it was founded anew by Irnerius or Wernerus, that it attained celebrity. Its reputation during that century was so great, chiefly on account of its school of jurisprudence, that students from all parts of Europe were attracted to it. In 1262, the number receiving instruction is stated to have been 10,000, and it was found necessary to appoint professors specially for the students from each country. The univ. is also celebrated as the first school for the practice of dissection of the human body, as well as for the fact that for centuries learned female professors have prelected within its walls. The famous linguist, Cardinal Mezzofanti, was a prof. here. Though the number of students is now comparatively small, the Univ. of B. still holds a first place among Italian educational institutions. Medicine is now the principal study. The univ. library contains 200,000 vols., and 6,000 MSS., 20,000 vols. having been presented by Benedict XIV. Many of the books are very rare and valuable. In the church of San Domenico there is a public library of 90,000 vols., accessible on holidays, when all others are closed. The Accademia delle Belle Arte is particularly rich in the works of those native artists who founded the far-famed Bolognese school of painting, and it has also some fine specimens of other schools. Besides being the birthplace of those painters that have made its name illustrious, B. gave to the pontifical chair Honorius II., Lucius II., Gregory XIII., Innocent IX., Gregory XV., and Benedict XIV.

B. has some important manufactures, including silk goods, velvet, crape, wax candles, musical instruments, chemical products, paper, and sausages almost as celebrated as its paintings.

B. owes its origin, which is said to be much earlier than that of Rome, to the Etruscans, by whom it was called Felsina. It afterward fell into the hands of the Boii, from whom it passed to the Romans, who made it a colony, under the name of Bononia (B.C. 189). In A.D. 53, it was nearly destroyed by fire, but was restored by Claudius. After the fall of the Roman empire, it passed into the

BOLOGNA-BOLOGNA PHIAL.

hands of the Longobards, from whom it was taken by the Franks. Charlemagne made it a free city, and its independence was confirmed by a charter from Henry V., in 1112, which also invested the citizens with the choice of their own judges, consuls, and magistrates. The feuds of the Guelph and Ghibelline factions led to the downfall of the republic, and the supremacy of the papal see, B being made a delegation in 1513. In 1796, B. was taken by the French, and was constituted the chief town of the Cispadane republic; and afterward, when the kingdom of Italy was established, cap. of the department Del Reno. It reverted to the pope, 1815. After that time, B. made several efforts to throw off the authority of the pope. One, in 1831, was successful, but the papal authority was restored in the following year. In 1848, the Austrians attempted to obtain possession of B., but were repulsed. In the following year, however, they succeeded in capturing the city after a siege of ten days. B. was then, like the rest of the Romagna, declared to be in a state of siege, and was made the head-quarters of the Austrian second Italian corps. From the commencement of the Italian campaign of 1859, the Bolognese gave an active sympathy to the national cause; and long before the peace-negotiations at Zurich had been brought to a close, they had intimated their intention of placing themselves under the rule of Victor Emmanuel, as a part of the new kingdom of Italy. Notwithstanding the menaces of the Vatican, they persisted in their resolve; and when the question of Annexation to Piedmont, or separate government,' was submitted to the universal vote of the people, 1860, March, the votes for annexation were 1,000 to 1. Pop. (1893) 141,500.

BOLOGNA, bo-lōn'ya, GIOVANNI DA: 1524-1608; b. Douai: Flemish sculptor and architect. Impelled by an irresistible inclination to the study of art, he first took some lessons from one of his countrymen, then went to Rome to copy the masters. Michael Angelo had then reached the zenith of his fame, and from him B. received some counsel, and perhaps lessons. After a stay of two years B. started to go home, but stopped at Florence, where he established himself permanently, and rose to such eminence that his only superior was Michael Angelo.. His masterpieces are almost innumerable. In his youth he executed a Neptune and four Sirens to adorn the public fountain of Bologna. In exchange for these marvels of his chisel he demanded a spouse, and a name-Giovanni Bologna (instead of John of Douai)—which he rendered illustrious.

BOLOGN'A PHI AL, or PHILOSOPHICAL PHIAL: a short, thick, narrow glass vessel, close at one end, and open at the other, which the glass-blower prepares from each pot of metal before employing it in the fashioning of tumblers, glasses, bottles, etc. See GLASS. It serves the purpose of enabling the glass-manufacturer to judge of the color and other conditions of the fused glass or metal; and as the jar is not subjected to annealing, it is very friable, and a